Culture and the meaning of parenthood

1. The rise of individualism.
   1. Autonomy.
   2. Self-development.
   3. Travel, leisure, and consumption.
   4. Parenthood as one life choice among many.
2. Changing expectations of parenting.
   1. Intensive parenting.
   2. Expectations of material provision.
   3. Educational competition.
   4. The shrinking definition of being “ready” for children.
3. Religion and secularization.
   1. Religious participation and fertility.
   2. Marriage and religious communities.
   3. Secularization across developed societies.
   4. High-fertility religious subcultures.
4. Cultural narratives about children.
   1. Children as blessing, obligation, project, or burden.
   2. Representations of parenthood in popular culture.
   3. Environmental concerns about childbearing.
   4. Pessimism about the future.